Phytoremediation of some freshwater aquatic ornamental plants to treat wastewater from Indonesian shortfin eel, Anguilla bicolor
Abstract: This study evaluated the ability of freshwater ornamental aquatic plants to treat wastewater from Anguilla bicolor culture and the effects on growth performance. Over 60 days, plants including Cryptocoryne beckettii, Bacopa serpyllifolia, Echinodorus amazonicus, Echinodorus palaefolius, and a control group were tested. The average weight of A. bicolor was 7.01±0.18 g, with a stocking density of 4 g L?¹. The A. bicolor were maintained in 48 L aquariums with a recirculating system, using aquatic plants as phytoremediators, in a semi-outdoor laboratory to ensure adequate light. The feed protein content was 45.30%, and feeding occurred three times daily. The results showed that the aquatic plants efficiently removed nutrients from the water. Echinodorus palaefolius was the most effective, removing 23.33% of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN), 33.25% nitrite, 47.40% nitrate, and 43.92% phosphate. This species also promoted the highest specific growth rate (1.14±0.10%), biomass (22.67±1.65 g), and physiological response in A. bicolor, with the lowest feed conversion ratio (1.97±0.17). In conclusion, Echinodorus palaefolius effectively improved water quality and growth performance in A. bicolor, demonstrating its potential as a phytoremediator for sustainable aquaculture.
Downloads
Abdelhamid A.M., Gabr A.A. (1991). Evaluation of water hyacinth as a feed for ruminants. Archiv für Tierernaehrung, 41(7-8): 745-756.
Ahmad A., Abdullah S.R.S., Hasan H.A., Othman A.R., Ismail N.I. (2021). Aquaculture industry: Supply and demand, best practices, effluent and its current issues and treatment technology. Journal of Environmental Management, 287: 112271.
Akinbile C., Yusoff M.S. (2012). Assessing water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassopes) and lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) effectiveness in aquaculture wastewater treatment. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 14(3): 201-211.
Alori E.T., Glick B.R., Babalola O.O. (2017). Microbial phosphorus solubilization and its potential for use in sustainable agriculture. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8: 971-971.
Anerao P., Kaware R., Khedikar A.K., Kumar M., Singh L. (2022). Phytoremediation of persistent organic pollutants: Concept challenges and perspectives. In: V. Kumar, M.P. Shah, S.K. Shahi (Eds.), Phytoremediation technology for the removal of heavy metals and other contaminants from soil and water. Elsevier. pp: 375-404.
APHA. (2006). Standard methods for the examination of the water and wastewater. 22nd ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C. (US). 1195 p.
Berndtsson J.C., Bengtsson L., Jinno K. (2009). Runoff water quality from intensive and extensive vegetated roofs. Ecological engineering, 35(3): 369-380.
Bhaskar B., Rao K. (1984). Influence of environmental variables on haematological ranges of milkfish, Chanos chanos (Forskal), in brackish water culture. Aquaculture, 83(1-2): 123-136.
Borguini R.G., Bastos D.H.M., Moita-Neto J.M., Capasso F.S., Torres E.A.F.D.S. (2013). Antioxidant potential of tomatoes cultivated in organic and conventional systems. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 56(4): 521-529.
Braun N., de Lima R.L., Baldisserotto B., Dafre A.L., de Oliveira Nuñer A.P. (2010). Growth, biochemical and physiological responses of Salminus brasiliensis with different stocking densities and handling. Aquaculture, 301(1-4): 22-30.
Brune D., Schwartz G., Eversole A., Collier J.A., Schwedler T.E. (2003). Intensification of pond aquaculture and high rate photosynthetic systems. Aquacultural Engineering, 28: 65-86.
Bureau D.P., Hua K. (2010). Towards effective nutritional management of waste outputs in aquaculture, with particular reference to salmonid aquaculture operations. Aquaculture Research, 41(5): 777-792.
Crab R., Avnimelech Y., Defoirdt T., Bossier P., Verstraete W. (2007). Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a sustainable production. Aquaculture, 270(1-4): 1-14.
Dauda A.B., Ajadi A., Tola-Fabunmi A.S., Akinwole A.O. (2018). Waste production in aquaculture: Sources, components and managements in different culture systems. Aquaculture and Fisheries, 4(3): 81-88.
Davidson J., Barrows F.T., Kenney P.B., Good C., Schroyer K., Summerfelt S.T. (2016). Effects of feeding a fishmeal-free versus a fishmeal-based diet on post-smolt Atlantic salmon Salmo salar performance, water quality, and waste production in recirculation aquaculture systems. Aquacultural Engineering, 74: 38-51.
de Winton M., Jones H.F.E., Edwards T., Özkundakci D., Wells R., McBride C.G., Rowe D.K., Hamilton D.P., Clayton J., Champion P. (2013). Review of best management practices for aquatic vegetation control in stormwater ponds, wetlands, and lakes (Vol. 1). Auckland Council.
Deviller G., Aliaume C., Nava M.A.F., Casellas C., Blancheton J.P. (2004). High-rate algal pond treatment for water reuse in an integrated marine fish recirculating system: effect on water quality and sea bass growth. Aquaculture, 235(1): 331-344.
Dhir B. (2013). Phytoremediation: Role of aquatic plants in environmental clean-up. Springer.
Dickinson N.M., Baker A.J.M., Doronila A., Laidlaw S., Reeves, R.D. (2009). Phytoremediation of inorganics: realism and synergies. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 11(2): 97-114.
Dixit A., Dixit S., Goswami C. (2011). Process and plants for wastewater remediation: A review. Scientific Reviews and Chemical Communications, 11: 71-77.
Djokosetiyanto D., Sunarma A. (2006). Changes of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate at recirculation system of red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) rearing. Jurnal Akuakultur Indonesia, 5(1): 13-20.
Ebeling J.M., Timmons M.B., Bisogni J. (2006). Engineering analysis of the stoichiometry of photoautotrophic, autotrophic, and heterotrophic removal of ammonia–nitrogen in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture, 257(1-4): 346-358.
El-Shafai S.A., El-Gohary F.A., Naser F.A., Van der Steen P., Gijzen H.J. (2007). Nitrogen recovery in an integrated system for wastewater treatment and tilapia production. The Environmentalist, 27(2): 287-302.
Enduta A., Jusoh A., Ali N.A., Wan Nik W. (2011). Nutrient removal from aquaculture wastewater by vegetable production in aquaponics recirculation system. Desalination and Water Treatment, 32(1-3): 422-430.
Flickinger D.L., Costa G.A., Dantas D., Moraes?Valenti P., Valenti W.C.J.A.R. (2019). The budget of nitrogen in the grow?out of the Amazon river prawn (Macrobrachium amazonicum Heller) and tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum Cuvier) farmed in monoculture and in integrated multitrophic aquaculture systems. Aquaculture Research, 50(11): 3444-3461.
Gettys L.A., Haller W.T., Petty D.G. (2008). Biology and control of aquatic plants: A best management. Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Foundation, Marietta, Georgia.
Ghaly A., Kamal M., Mahmoud N. (2005). Phytoremediation of aquaculture wastewater for water recycling and production of fish feed. Environment International, 31(1): 1-13.
Goddek S., Vermeulen T. (2018). Comparison of Lactuca sativa growth performance in conventional and RAS-based hydroponic systems. Aquaculture International, 26(6): 1377-1386.
Gosselin J.R., Haller W.T., Gettys L., Griffin T., Crawford E. (2018). Effects of substrate nutrients on growth of three submersed aquatic plants. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 56: 39-46.
Han N., Zhang J., Hoang M., Gray S., Xie Z. (2021). A review of process and wastewater reuse in the recycled paper industry. Environmental Technology and Innovation, 24: 101860.
Handajani H., Adhywirawan G., Andriawan S., Prasetyo D., Mavuso B.R. (2021). Evaluation of efficiency of Echinodorus palaefolius (JF Macbr.) Involved in the Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) culture for water quality recovery and fish growth support. Jordan Journal of Biological Sciences, 14(5): 959-964.
Handajani H., Widanarni W., Budiardi T., Setiawati M., Sujono S. (2018). Phytoremediation of Eel (Anguilla bicolor bicolor) rearing wastewater using amazon sword (Echinodorus amazonicus) and water jasmine (Echinodorus palaefolius). Omni-Akuatika, 14(2): 43-51.
Harianto E., Budiardi T., Sudrajat A.O. (2014). Growth performance of 7-g Anguilla bicolor bicolor at different density. Jurnal Akuakultur Indonesia, 13(2), 120-131.
Haris M., Shakeel A., Hussain T., Ahmad G., Ansari M.S., Khan A.A. (2021). New trends in removing heavy metals from industrial wastewater through microbes. Removal of emerging Contaminants Through Microbial Processes, 183-205.
Hinsinger P. (2001). Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: a review. Plant and soil, 237(2): 173-195.
Horwitz W., Chichilo P., Reynolds H. (1970). Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
Hudson H., Brauer P., Scofield M., Petzel D. (2008). Effects of warm acclimation on serum osmolality, cortisol and hematocrit levels in the Antarctic fish, Trematomus bernacchii. Polar Biology, 31(8): 991-997.
Jasrotia S., Kansal A., Mehra A. (2017). Performance of aquatic plant species for phytoremediation of arsenic-contaminated water. Applied Water Science, 7(2): 889-896.
Jawad L.A., Al-Mukhtar M., Ahmed H. (2004). The relationship between haematocrit and some biological parameters of the Indian shad, Tenualosa ilisha (Family Clupeidae). Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 27(2): 47-52.
Johnson C., Schweinhart S., Buffam I. (2016). Plant species richness enhances nitrogen retention in green roof plots. Ecological Applications, 26(7): 2130-2144.
Kainama H., Sohilait H.J., Souisa C.J. (2021). Qualitative Protein Hydrolyzed from Nerita undata in supralittoral rocks and mezolittoral zone of Hasa Cape using TLC. Indonesian Journal of Chemical Research, 9(2): 118-123.
Kim L.O., Lee S.-M. (2005). Effects of the dietary protein and lipid levels on growth and body composition of bagrid catfish, Pseudobagrus fulvidraco. Aquaculture, 243(1): 323-329.
Lawrence A., Amadeo J. (2010). Textbook of clinical chemistry, theory, analysis correlations. Mosby/ Elsevier.
Lee J.-S., Cheng H., Damte D., Lee S.-J., Kim J.-C., Rhee M.-H., Suh J.-W., Park S.-C. (2013). Effects of dietary supplementation of Lactobacillus pentosus PL11 on the growth performance, immune and antioxidant systems of Japanese eel Anguilla japonica challenged with Edwardsiella tarda. Fish and Shellfish Immunology, 34(3): 756-761.
Liao S.-W., Chang W.-L. (2004). Heavy metal phytoremediation by water hyacinth at constructed wetlands in Taiwan. Journal of Aquatic, 42: 60-68.
Liu X., Xu H., Wang X., Wu Z., Bao X. (2014). An ecological engineering pond aquaculture recirculating system for effluent purification and water quality control. CLEAN–Soil, Air, Water, 42(3): 221-228.
Luo M., Guan R., Li Z., Jin H. (2013). The effects of water temperature on the survival, feeding, and growth of the juveniles of Anguilla marmorata and A. bicolor pacifica. Aquaculture, 400: 61-64.
Madhurina M., Bidisha M., Shekhar M., Sankar C., Amitawa G., Arunabha M. (2014). Study on the phytoremediation potential wastewater-A case study in Indian context. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 3(1): 83-89.
Madikizela L.M. (2021). Removal of organic pollutants in water using water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Journal of Environmental Management, 295: 113153.
Malhotra H., Sharma S., Pandey R. (2018). Phosphorus nutrition: plant growth in response to deficiency and excess. In: Plant Nutrients and Abiotic Stress Tolerance. Springer. pp: 171-190.
Metaxa E., Deviller G., Pagand P., Alliaume C., Casellas C., Blancheton J.P. (2006). High rate algal pond treatment for water reuse in a marine fish recirculation system: Water purification and fish health. Aquaculture, 252(1): 92-101.
Mkandawire M., Dudel E.G. (2007). Are Lemna spp. effective phytoremediation agents. Bioremediation, Biodiversity and Bioavailability, 1(1): 56-71.
M?odzi?ska E., Zboi?ska M. (2016). Phosphate uptake and allocation - a closer Look at Arabidopsis thaliana L. and Oryza sativa L. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7: 1198-1198.
Mokif L.A., Abdulhusain N.A. (2022). A low cost material for treatment wastewater contained petroleum pollution. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1088(1): 012014
Nafsiyah I., Nurilmala M., Abdullah A. (2018). Nutrient composition of Eel Anguilla bicolor bicolor and Anguilla marmorata. Jurnal Pengolahan Hasil Perikanan Indonesia, 21(3): 504-512.
Nakbanpote W., Meesungnoen O., Majeti P. (2016). Chapter 9 - Potential of ornamental plants for phytoremediation of heavy metals and income generation. In: Bioremediation and Bioeconomy. pp: 177-217.
Nawir F., Utomo N.B.P., Budiardi T. (2015). The growth of eel fed with different protein level and protein-energy ratio. Jurnal Akuakultur Indonesia, 14(2): 128-134.
Newman L.A., Reynolds C.M. (2004). Phytodegradation of organic compounds. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 15(3): 225-230.
Ngoc P.T.A., Meuwissen M.P.M., Le T.C., Bosma R.H., Verreth J., Lansink A.O. (2016). Adoption of recirculating aquaculture systems in large pangasius farms: A choice experiment. Aquaculture, 460: 90-97.
Nhan H.T., Tai N.T., Liem P.T., Ut V.N., Ako H. (2019). Effects of different stocking densities on growth performance of Asian swamp eel Monopterus albus, water quality and plant growth of watercress Nasturtium officinale in an aquaponic recirculating system. Aquaculture, 503: 96-104.
Nootong K., Nurit S., Powtongsook S. (2013). Control of inorganic nitrogen and suspended solids concentrations in a land-based recirculating aquaculture system. Engineering Journal, 17(1): 49-60.
Nootong K., Pavasant P., Powtongsook S. (2011). Effects of organic carbon addition in controlling inorganic nitrogen concentrations in a biofloc system. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 42(3): 339-346.
Norousta R., Mousavi-Sabet H. (2013). Comparative characterization of blood cells and hematological parameters between the mature and immature Caspian Vimba, Vimba vimba persa (Teleostei, Cyprinidae). Aquaculture, Aquarium, Conservation and Legislation, 6(3): 232-240.
Nurfitri A., Masayuki S., Koichiro S. (2017). Phytoremediation of heavy metal-polluted mine drainage by Eleocharis Acicularis. Environmental Science Indian Journal, 13(1): 131.
O’Hare M.T., Baattrup-Pedersen A., Baumgarte I., Freeman A., Gunn I.D., Lázár A.N., Sinclair R., Wade A.J., Bowes M.J. (2018). Responses of aquatic plants to eutrophication in rivers: a revised conceptual model. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9(451): 1-13.
Omitoyin B.O., Ajani E.K., Okeleye O.I., Akpoilih B.U., Ogunjobi A.A. (2017). Biological treatments of fish farm effluent and its reuse in the culture of nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal of Aquaculture Research and Development, 8(2): 469-478.
Othman R., Hatta F.A.M., Ramya R., Hanifah N.A. (2015). Phytoremediation model system for aquaculture wastewater using Glossostigma elatinoides and Hemianthus callitrichoides. International Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Research, 4(1): 1-7.
Paz-Alberto A.M., Sigua G.C. (2013). Phytoremediation: a green technology to remove environmental pollutants. American Journal of Climate Change, 2(1): 71-86.
Perdana M., Sutanto H., Prihatmo G. (2018). Vertical Subsurface Flow (VSSF) constructed wetland for domestic wastewater treatment. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science, 148(1): 012025.
Poschenrieder C., i Coll J.B. (2003). Phytoremediation: principles and perspectives. Contributions to Science, 333-344.
Pratama W.W., Nursyam H., Hariati A.M., Islamy R.A., Hasan V. (2020). Proximate analysis, amino acid profile and albumin concentration of various weights of Giant Snakehead (Channa micropeltes) from Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 21(3): 1196-1200.
Qu J., Zhang Q., Jia C., Liu P., Yang M. (2017). The study of recirculating aquaculture system in pond and its purification effect. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 67(1): 012028.
Rahman M.A., Hasegawa H. (2011). Aquatic arsenic: phytoremediation using floating macrophytes. Chemosphere, 83(5): 633-646.
Rakhmatika S., Joko T., Nurjazuli N. (2017). Differences of constructed wetlands recirculating free water surface and subsurface flow system Echinodorus Palaefolius for reducing phospat greywater case sudy: Kelurahan Gedawang, Kecamatan Banyumanik. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat, 5(1): 482-488.
Razaq M., Zhang P., Shen H.-l. (2017). Influence of nitrogen and phosphorous on the growth and root morphology of Acer mono. PLoS One, 12(2): e0171321.
Ren T., Koshio S., Teshima S.I., Md M.I., Alam S., Panganiban Jr A., Moe Y.Y., Kojima T., Tokumitsu H. (2005). Optimum dietary level of L?ascorbic acid for Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 36(4): 437-443.
Romano N., Sinha A.K. (2020). Husbandry of aquatic animals in closed aquaculture systems. In: Aquaculture Health Management. Elsevier. pp: 17-73.
Rosen D.J. (2000). Cryptocoryne beckettii (Araceae), a new aquatic plant in Texas. SIDA, Contributions to Botany, 19(2): 399-401.
Russell K. (2005). The use and effectiveness of phytoremediation to treat persistent organic pollutants. US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response Technology Innovation and Field Services Division Washington, DC.
Saputra A., Budiardi T., Supriyono E. (2016). Production performance of eel Anguilla bicolor bicolor with the addition of calsium carbonat. Jurnal Akuakultur Indonesia, 15(1): 56-62.
Saunders D., Kalff J. (2001). Nitrogen retention in wetlands, lakes and rivers. Hydrobiologia, 443(1-3): 205-212.
Schütt D.A., Lehmann J., Goerlich R., Hamers R. (1997). Haematology of swordtail, Xiphophorus helleri. I: blood parameters and light microscopy of blood cells. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 13(2): 83-89.
Sharma A., Aggarwal N.K., Saini A., Yadav A. (2016). Beyond biocontrol: water hyacinth-opportunities and challenges. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9(1): 26-48.
Simplício N., Muniz D., Rocha F., Martins D., Dias Z., Farias B., Oliveira-Filho E. (2017). Comparative analysis between ecotoxicity of nitrogen-, phosphorus-, and potassium-based fertilizers and their active ingredients. Toxics, 5(1): 2-15.
Singh J., Kumar V., Kumar P., Kumar P. (2022). Kinetics and prediction modeling of heavy metal phytoremediation from glass industry effluent by water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19(6): 5481-5492.
Siswandari A.M. (2016). Phytoremediation of laundry phospat wastewater using Echinodorus paleafolius and Equisetum hyemale as biologi knowledge resourses. University of Muhammadiyah Malang Press.
Su W., Sun Q., Xia M., Wen Z., Yao Z. (2018). The resource utilization of Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms) and its challenges. Resources, 7(3): 46-55.
Suzuki Y., Maruyama T., Numata H., Sato H., Asakawa M. (2003). Performance of a closed recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification and denitrification units for intensive culture of eel: towards zero emission. Aquacultural Engineering, 29(3-4): 165-182.
Tang H., Dai Y., Fan Y., Song X., Wang F., Liang W. (2021). Effect of Vallisneria spiralis on water quality and sediment nitrogen at different growth stages in eutrophic shallow Lake Mesocosms. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 30(3): 2341-2351.
Tavares-Dias M., Barcellos J., Marcon J., Menezes G., Ono E.A., Affonso E.G. (2007). Hematological and biochemical parameters for the pirarucu Arapaima gigas Schinz, 1822 (Osteoglossiformes, Arapaimatidae) in net cage culture. Electronic Journal of Ichthyology, 2: 61-68
Thiebaut G. (2008). Phosphorus and aquatic plants. Springer, Dordrecht. pp: 31-49.
Trung Quang P., Lan Anh Thi N., Nhung Thi D., Thao Thi T. (2024). Determination of phosphorus additives in instant noodle samples by Phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance (P-NMR). Vietnam Journal of Science, Technology and Engineering, 66(3): 39-45.
Tseng K.-F., Wu K.-L. (2004). The ammonia removal cycle for a submerged biofilter used in a recirculating eel culture system. Aquacultural Engineering, 31(1-2): 17-30.
Twarowska J.G., Westerman P.W., Losordo T.M. (1997). Water treatment and waste characterization evaluation of an intensive recirculating fish production system. Aquacultural Engineering, 16(3): 133-147.
Vaillant N., Monnet F., Sallanon H., Coudret A., Hitmi A. (2004). Use of commercial plant species in a hydroponic system to treat domestic wastewaters. Journal of Environmental Quality, 33(2): 695-702.
Van Rijn J. (2013). Waste treatment in recirculating aquaculture systems. Aquacultural Engineering, 53: 49-56.
Wananda A.Z.J., Setyawan Y.A., Setiani F.S., Wulandari I.N.E., Andriawan S. (2022). Local synbiotic from Amorphophallus muelleri Bl. and Bacillus sp. to boost Litopenaeus vannamei non-specific immune responses [Article]. AACL Bioflux, 15(1): 489-501.
Wedemeyer G.A., Yasutake W. (1977). Clinical methods for the assessment of the effects of environmental stress on fish health (Vol. 89). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Zakia D.W., Prasetyo H.D., Latuconsina H. (2023). Phytoremediation of a combination of Water Clover (Marsilea crenata) and Java Fern (Microsorum pteropus) for fecal wastewater. Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa Sains Unisma Malang, 1(2): 56-65.
Zapata F., Zaharah A. (2002). Phosphorus availability from phosphate rock and sewage sludge as influenced by the addition of water soluble phosphate fertilizer. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 63(1): 43-48.
Zhang C., Chen X., Wei B., Li Z., Liu S., Li Q. (2009). Study on removal efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage by aquatic macrophtes under two cultivation modes. Southwest China Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 22: 786-790.
Zhang S., Li M., Cheng J., Xu Z., Chen J. (2016). Response and environmental assessment of two Chinese conventional carps to water quality regulation in recirculating aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering, 74: 180-185.
Zhou Y.-W., Xu X.-G., Han R.-M., Zhou X.-H., Feng D.-Y., Li Z.-C., Wang G.-X. (2018). Effect of nutrient loadings on the regulation of water nitrogen and phosphorus by Vallisneria natans and its photosynthetic fluorescence characteristics. Huan Jing Ke Xue = Huanjing Kexue, 39(3): 1180-1187.
Zhou Y., Stepanenko A., Kishchenko O., Xu J., Borisjuk N. (2023). Duckweeds for phytoremediation of polluted water. Plants, 12(3): 589-608.
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal of Aquatic Biology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
